Torrefaction is an endothermic pretreatment pathway that mainly proceeded at temperatures ranging from 200 to 300 C and a non-accelerated heating rate of less than 50 C/min in an oxygen-free atmosphere. This process is used for upgrading the solid biomass to produce a torrefied product used later as a suitable alternate to coal (Cahyanti et al. 2020). Three transformational reactions, including: volatilisation, polymerisation and carbonisation, occur during the torrefaction process. The process efficacy is influenced by temperature, reaction time, particle magnitude, carrier gas type and flow, catalyst and performance index (Chen et al. 2021). This strategy significantly improves the physicochemical properties of utilised biomass such as hydrophobicity, grindability, mass/energy density, ignitability, moisture expelling and homogeneity (Chen and Kuo 2011).
Pyrolysis is counted as one of the most as-used thermochemical scenarios to degrade the carbonaceous biomass, such as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin (Aravind et al. 2020). This results in the generation of solid, liquid and gas biofuels in an oxygen-free atmosphere via endothermic reaction (Perkins et al. 2018). The yield of the pyrolytic products is influenced by factors, including feedstock composition such as structure and complexity. This is also coupled with pyrolysis impacting factors such as particle size, temperature, heating rate, residence time, inert gas type, inert gas flow, catalyst type and others (Azizi et al. 2018).
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